Kongo History
The Kongo people (BaKongo) have a rich history of resistance against colonial oppression, spanning over 400 years. The Kingdom of Kongo (Kongo: Kongo dya Ntotila or Wene wa Kongo; Portuguese: Reino do Congo) once flourished in central Africa, encompassing present-day northern Angola, the western portion of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and the Republic of the Congo. At its zenith, it stretched from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Kwango River in the east, and from the Congo River in the north to the Kwanza River in the south.
From around 1390 to 1862, the Kingdom of Kongo stood as an independent state. However, its autonomy was periodically challenged, and from 1862 to 1914, it functioned intermittently as a vassal state of the Kingdom of Portugal. The year 1914 marked a significant turning point when Portugal suppressed a Kongo revolt, leading to the abolition of the titular monarchy. Despite the restoration of the title of king of Kongo from 1915 to 1975, it held little real power. The remaining territories of the kingdom were absorbed into the colonies of Angola, the Belgian Congo, and the Protectorate of Cabinda.
In the modern era, the Bundu dia Kongo sect advocates for the revival of the kingdom through secession from Angola, the Republic of the Congo, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
Historical Events of the Kingdom of Kongo:
Around 1375: Nimi a Nzima, ruler of Mpemba Kasi and Vungu, formed an alliance with Nsaku Lau, the ruler of the neighboring Mbata Kingdom. This alliance laid the foundation for the Kingdom of Kongo under the leadership of Lukeni lua Nimi.
1390: Ntinu Nimi a Lukeni formally established the Kongo Kingdom or Wene wa Kongo.
1483: Portuguese explorer Diogo Cão made contact with the Kongo Kingdom, leaving some of his men and taking Kongolese nobles to Portugal.
1485: Diogo Cão returned to Kongo with the kidnapped nobles.
1485-1491: Kala ka Mfusu led a royal mission from Kongo to Portugal, resulting in the baptism of emissaries and the christening of the 5th ManiKongo Nzinga-a-Nkuwu as João I.
May 5, 1518: Prince Henrique Kinu a Mvemba, son of the 6th ManiKongo Afonso I Mvemba a Nzinga, was elevated to Bishop of Utica by Pope Leo X in Rome, becoming the first known bishop from Central Africa in history.
1568: The Kongo Empire faced invasions from Yagas, marking a challenging period in its history.
Colonial Period and Independence Movements:
1575: Portuguese Angola was established as a gesture of gratitude from the Portuguese for their assistance in defeating the Yagas in 1568.
1621: Portuguese aggression struck the Kongo when they attacked the vassal state of Ndongo. This marked the beginning of a tumultuous period, as Portuguese Governor Mendes de Vasconcellos forged an alliance with the Imbangala, employing them as mercenaries to wreak havoc in Ndongo while Portuguese Angola profited from the chaos. Subsequent governors continued this strategy, leading to conflicts within Kongo's territories.
December 18, 1622: The First Kongo-Portuguese War commenced with the Battle of Mbumbi. Although the Portuguese emerged victorious, the battle fueled anti-Portuguese sentiment across Kongo, prompting riots and bloodshed. King Pedro II, newly crowned, sheltered surviving Portuguese under his protection while preparing for a counterattack.
January 1623: The Battle of Mbandi Kasi marked the end of the First Kongo-Portuguese War. While not widely reported by the Portuguese, the battle shifted the tide in favor of Kongo, leading to the expulsion of the Portuguese governor of Luanda and the return of Kongolese subjects taken as slaves.
Following the victory at Mbanda Kasi, Pedro II declared Portuguese Angola an official enemy and sought support from other powers, including the Dutch. However, his plans for a joint attack on Angola were thwarted by his death and the accession of his son Garcia Mvemba a Nkanga as king.
1625-1641: This period witnessed renewed internal strife within Kongo, as noble houses vied for power. The House of Kwilu and the House of Nsundi clashed over the kingship, followed by conflict with the House of Kinlaza.
1641: The Dutch invaded Angola and captured Luanda, marking the beginning of the Second Kongo-Portuguese War. King Garcia II expelled Portuguese merchants and agreed to provide military assistance to the Dutch. The Duke of Mbamba led Kongo's forces to aid the Dutch, with the Dutch providing military support in exchange for slaves.
1642: Dutch troops assisted Garcia II in suppressing an uprising in the Dembos region, solidifying the Kongo-Dutch alliance.
1643: A joint Dutch-Kongo force attacked Portuguese bases on the Bengo River, forcing Portuguese retreat to forts on the Kwanza River. However, the Dutch eventually lost interest in conquering Angola and signed a peace treaty with Portugal, disappointing Garcia II.
1641-1646: Internal conflicts within Kongo intensified as rival noble houses fought for supremacy. King Garcia II's focus on subduing Soyo hindered his ability to fully assist the Dutch against Portugal.
1646: Portuguese aggression against Queen Njinga of the Ambundu Kingdoms prompted Garcia II to send forces to assist her, leading to the start of the Third Kongo-Portuguese War.
October 29, 1647: The Third Kongo-Portuguese War commenced with the Battle of Kombi, resulting in a decisive victory for Kongo troops. Njinga's army besieged Portuguese forces in the interior of the colony.
1648: Portuguese reinforcements from Brazil compelled the Dutch-Kongo-Ndongo contingent to surrender Luanda. The Portuguese governor sought terms with Kongo, leading to negotiations that resulted in de facto Portuguese control of Luanda.
1649: The Third Kongo-Portuguese War ended, with Portugal gaining control of Luanda and Central Africa. Kongo and Angola did not ratify the treaty, but hostilities ceased, albeit with Portugal pressing claims over Kongo's southern vassals.
1661: King Garcia II passed away, leaving the throne to his second eldest son, António I. Determined to remove the Portuguese from Angola, António I pursued an anti-Portuguese agenda and sought a Spanish alliance. However, his efforts faced challenges, including internal divisions within Kongo and Portuguese advances in Mbwila.
1665: The Battle of Mbwila resulted in a Portuguese victory, killing King António I and sparking the Kongo Civil War. The country descended into chaos as rival factions vied for power, and BaKongo slaves were increasingly sold across the Atlantic.
June 1669: King Álvaro IX, supported by Soyo, ascended to power, but discontent grew among the nobles regarding Soyo's influence.
1670: King Álvaro IX was overthrown by Rafael I, leading to Portuguese intervention in Kongo's internal affairs and battles against Soyo.
October 18, 1670: Portuguese attempts to invade Kongo and Soyo were repelled by Soyo's forces at the Battle of Kitombo, marking the end of Portuguese ambitions in Kongo's sphere of influence for nearly two centuries.
1678: The battles between the Kimpanzu and Kinlaza continued, plunging Kongo into chaos. São Salvador was sacked, leading to depopulation and dispersal of the population into mountain fortresses controlled by rival kings.
By the end of the 17th century, Kongo's golden age had ended, and the kingdom ceased to exist for two decades. Internal conflicts persisted, culminating in assassinations, power struggles, and interventions by Soyo. However, King Pedro III's brother, João II, attempted to restore Kongo's dominance, albeit unsuccessfully.
Ultimately, it was Pedro IV, aided by his brother Álvaro X and other factions, who oversaw the restoration of Kongo. Meanwhile, Manuel de Nóbrega, representing the Kimpanzu, waged war on Kinlaza partisans with the support of Soyo.
1684: Dona Beatriz Kimpa Vita, a prophet and leader of the Antonianism movement, was born. Antonianism taught that Jesus and other early Christian figures were from the Kongo Empire.
In the midst of the Kongo Civil War, a religious movement led by Beatriz Kimpa Vita emerged. Claiming to be possessed by the spirit of Saint Anthony, she aimed to reunite the kingdom of Kongo. Despite facing rejection from rival claimants, she gathered her followers and marched into the ruins of São Salvador in 1704, with the assistance of Pedro Constantino da Silva.
July 2, 1706: King Pedro IV, urged by Capuchin missionaries, had Dona Beatriz arrested for heresy and burned at the stake. He then sought to reunify the kingdom.
February 15, 1709: King Pedro IV, having gained fealty from nearly all claimants through political means, marched on São Salvador. In the Battle of São Salvador, he defeated Pedro Constantino da Silva and the Antonians. Subsequently, he clashed with João II at the Battle of Mbula, emerging victorious and renaming his base São Francisco de Kibangu.
1709: The Kongo Civil War ended with Pedro's efforts to reunify the kingdom and make peace between the Kinlaza and Kimpanzu factions. Manuel Makasa succeeded Pedro as King Manuel II of Kongo, followed by Garcia IV Nkanga a Mvemba. Despite a semblance of peace, Kongo's political and economic influence continued to wane, leading to disintegration into semi-autonomous fiefdoms.
1718: Internal rivalries erupted within the royal family, leading to violent conflicts. The 1730s witnessed major wars in the province of Mbamba.
1764: The system of alternating succession collapsed when Álvaro XI usurped the throne from Pedro V, leading to a period of instability and rival claimants.
1827-1830: The Imperial Brazilian Navy established a naval base in Cabinda, marking Brazil's only colony outside of South America.
1876: King Leopold II of Belgium initiated colonial efforts in Africa, leading to the formation of the International Congo Society and the subsequent partitioning of the Kongo Empire among European powers.
September 10, 1880: French sovereignty was established north of the Congo River, leading to the founding of Brazzaville by Pietro Paolo Savorgnan di Brazzà.
February 26, 1884: Portugal, in collaboration with Great Britain, claimed sovereignty over the Kongo Empire, leading to the Berlin Conference where European powers divided Africa among themselves.
February 1885: Portugal claimed sovereignty over Cabinda in the Treaty of Simulambuco, making it a protectorate of the Portuguese Crown.
1888: Peter V of Kongo signed a treaty of vassalage with Portugal, possibly to prevent further disintegration of the kingdom due to Belgian claims for access to the Atlantic Ocean.
In 1910, Kavuna Kafwandani (also known as Kavuna Simon) published an article in the Swedish mission society's Kikongo language newspaper "Misanü Miayenge" (Words of Peace), urging all speakers of the Kikongo language to recognize their identity.
In 1920, the borders of Angola were finally established through negotiations with neighboring colonial powers. From then on, Cabinda was treated as part of this colony.
In 1933, the Portuguese constitution made a distinction between the colony of Angola and the protectorate of Cabinda.
Founded in 1955, the Alliance of Bakongo (French: Alliance des Bakongo, or ABAKO) emerged as a Congolese political party, initially led by Edmond Nzeza Nlandu but later headed by Joseph Kasa-Vubu. ABAKO became a vocal opponent of Belgian colonial rule in what is now the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and it served as the major ethno-religious organization for the Kongo people, closely linked with the Kimbanguist Church, which was highly popular in the lower Congo. The lower Congo region, being exposed to the West for an extended period and having a rich heritage of messianic unrest, was the first area to show militantly anti-Belgian sentiment and activity.
In 1951, Angola was declared an "overseas province" within the Portuguese Empire, while Cabinda was treated as an ordinary district of Angola.
On July 7, 1954, the Union of the Peoples of Northern Angola (UPA) was established by Holden Roberto, a descendant of the old Kongo Royal House. UPA later expanded its scope and became the Union of the Peoples of Angola (UPA) in 1958. Despite signing an agreement with the MPLA in 1960 to fight together against Portuguese forces, UPA ended up fighting alone. In 1962, UPA merged with the Democratic Party of Angola to form the National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA), positioning itself as a pro-American and anti-Soviet organization. FNLA, mainly supported by the Bakongo ethnic group, was backed by Congo/Zaire and Algeria and received financial support from the US.
In 1956, ABAKO and Kasa-Vubu led ethnic nationalism and issued a manifesto advocating for immediate independence, responding to a conciliatory statement by intellectuals from other ethnic groups.
The administration of Cabinda was transferred to the governor-general of Angola in 1956, the same year the first Cabindan separatist movement, known as the Associação dos Indígenas do Enclave de Cabinda (AIEC), was formed. AIEC advocated for the union of Cabinda with Belgian Congo or French Congo.
On January 4, 1959, Belgian administrators dispersed a large crowd of ABAKO supporters gathered for a political meeting in Leopoldville, resulting in fatal consequences.
In 1959, the Associação dos Ressortissants do Enclave de Cabinda (AREC) was founded as a humanitarian organization. It was later renamed the Freedom Movement for the State of Cabinda (MLEC) and shifted its focus to promoting self-determination. In the same year, the National Action Committee of the Cabindan People (CAUNC) and the Mayombé Alliance (ALLIAMA) emerged on the political scene.
From 1960 to 1965, Joseph Kasa-Vubu served as the first President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (then Republic of the Congo).
In 1963, MLEC, ALLIAMA, and CAUNC merged to form the Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (FLEC), the largest self-determination movement in the region. The Organization of African Unity declared Cabinda an independently governed state with its own independence movement.
ABAKO was dissolved in 1966 following the establishment of an authoritarian regime by Joseph-Désiré Mobutu, based on single-party rule by his Popular Movement of the Revolution (MPR).
On January 10, 1967, FLEC formed a government in exile based in the town of Tshela, Zaire.
In June 1969 (officially in 1986), Bundu dia Kongo (BDK), a religious movement with a political and cultural agenda associated with the Kongo ethnic group, was founded by Ne Muanda Nsemi. It is primarily based in the Kongo Central (Bas-Congo) province in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
Modern Developments and Conflicts:
1971: Cabinda's legal distinction from Angola was expressed in the Portuguese constitution.
October 27, 1971: Under pressure from the BaKongo ethnic group, Mobutu changed the name of the "Democratic Republic of Congo" to "Zaire".
1972: Angola's name was changed to the "State of Angola".
August 1974: FLEC absorbed the Democratic Union of Cabindan Peoples and the Democratic Party of Cabinda, becoming the sole political organization in Cabinda.
January 1975: Under pressure from Angolan liberation movements, Portugal accepted Cabinda as part of Angola in the Alvor Agreement, denying Cabinda the right to self-determination.
August 1, 1975: FLEC president Luis Ranque Franque announced the formation of the Republic of Cabinda, an independent state, which was ignored by the MPLA troops controlling the region.
November 1975: Angola gained independence from Portugal, claiming Cabinda as part of its territory. The provisional Cabindan government, led by the FLEC, was overturned.
November 8, 1975: FLEC responded by initiating armed struggle to create a separate Cabindan state.
November 9, 1975: FLEC clashed with MPLA troops, with 600 Cabindan MPLA soldiers reportedly defecting to FLEC.
June 11–14, 1977: Fire was exchanged between FLEC fighters and government forces, resulting in casualties.
July 27, 1979: Seven militants were killed in clashes in Pangamongo, Tando-Makuku, and Seva.
August 20, 1979: Insurgents killed two East German and three Cuban soldiers outside Inhuca and Buco-Zau.
May 22, 1981: An Angolan court sentenced six people to death for belonging to FLEC.
Early 1990s: The NINJAS militia, associated with the Bakongo ethnic group, was active in the Republic of the Congo.
April 25, 1990: FLEC-N'zita militants abducted French and Congolese Elf Aquitaine personnel, who were later released.
September 20, 1990: FLEC-N'zita rebels kidnapped two Portuguese Mota e Companhia Limitada employees, who were released two months later.
April 21, 1990: FLEC perpetrated a grenade attack on a market in Cabinda, injuring 24 people.
June 7, 1991: FLEC appealed to the Angolan government for a referendum on Cabinda's autonomy status.
September 29–30, 1992: General elections were held in Angola, with a low turnout in Cabinda following a FLEC call for a boycott.
1993 - December 1994: First Republic of the Congo Civil War occurred, primarily driven by disputes over parliamentary elections.
September 29, 1995: FLEC-Renovada signed a four-month cease-fire with the Angolan government.
November 18–22, 1995: Talks between the Cabinda Democratic Front and the Angolan government in Pointe-Noire failed to reach an agreement.
January 23, 1996: FLEC guerrillas abducted three mining workers.
December 11, 1996: An engagement between FAA and FLEC resulted in 29 deaths.
March 5, 1997: Forty-two soldiers were killed in a battle with Cabindan separatist guerrillas.
March 26, 1997: Two FLEC-FAC militants and 27 soldiers were killed in fighting in northeastern Cabinda.
June 7, 1997-December 29, 1999: Second Republic of the Congo Civil War occurred, involving militias representing political candidates.
June 10–20, 1997: Over 100 people were killed as government troops clashed with separatists.
January 8, 1998: FAA suffered 24 combat casualties in fighting with FLEC.
March 28, 1998: FLEC-FAC militants attacked two civilian vehicles, resulting in one death.
October 4, 1998: A FAA offensive in Cabinda resulted in 200 deaths.
November 11, 1998: Angolan army shelling killed seven civilians and wounded 19 others.
November 28, 1998: Eleven FAA personnel were killed in an attack by FLEC.
June 14, 1999: FLEC targeted the village of Bulo, resulting in four civilian deaths and six injuries.
2002: DRC's police shot and killed 14 followers of Bundu dia Kongo in a demonstration.
March 2002 - March 17, 2003: Pool Department Conflict occurred between Frédéric Bintsamou and president Denis Sassou-Nguesso, involving the Ninja militia.
April 18, 2002: Twelve soldiers were killed in the aftermath of clashes with FLEC.
October 30, 2002: FLEC-FAC guerrillas captured the biggest military base in Cabinda, known as Kungo Shonzo.
January 2, 2003: Angolan troops captured two FLEC-Renovada officers and seized a large cache of weapons and explosives.
June 8, 2003: Seven FLEC-FAC commanders surrendered to Angolan authorities.
June 17, 2003: Angolan security forces murdered two civilians in the Buco-Zau district.
November 29, 2003: One thousand former FLEC fighters and their relatives were officially integrated into the Angolan army, police force, and civil society.
December 24, 2003: FLEC conducted an ambush in the Buco-Zau district, killing three security personnel and three civilians.
November 17, 2004: Fifty-three FLEC-FAC rebels abandoned armed struggle and surrendered to authorities.
2006-2011: The Alliance of Builders of Kongo (ABAKO) won seats in the National Assembly in Congo's general elections.
February 26, 2008: Numbi met with Interior Minister Denis Kalume and President Joseph Kabila to discuss Bundu Dia Kongo (BDK), an unarmed religious movement that had been engaged in violent demonstrations for greater political independence in Bas Kongo. Two days later, 600 police officers armed with machine guns and grenades were deployed from Kinshasa to repress the group.
Late February-early March 2008: The followers of Bundu dia Kongo clashed with the police in and around Luozi and Seke-Banza. According to the police, the clashes resulted in the death of 25 people (22 of them in Luozi) and many wounded. Nsemi, who said that he had called for calm and a neutral investigation, alleged that the police had killed 80 people in Luozi and 40 in Seke-Banza. Later, in May, corpses of 40 people were unearthed in five mass graves in Sumbi, in the territory of Seke-Banza. United Nations Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo (MONUC) carried out a special inquiry into the events. The report concludes that at least 100 people, mainly members of Bundu dia Kongo, were killed in the police operations in Bas-Congo. According to the report, the high death toll resulted from excessive use of force when the police, armed with AK-47s, opened fire on BDK members, who were armed with sharp sticks, stones, and kola nuts. A large number of bodies were dumped in rivers and mass graves in an attempt to conceal evidence. Also, over 200 buildings were burned and private houses were looted by the police.
March 2008: The Congolese government banned Bundu dia Kongo, but they persisted.
March 3, 2008: FLEC separatists killed three FAA soldiers in the city of Cabinda.
According to a Human Rights Watch report: The Angolan military and secret service have committed a number of human rights violations during the conflict. The report indicates that between September 2007 and March 2009, 38 people were arbitrarily detained, tortured, humiliated, and later put on trial for alleged security crimes. The arrested included six members of the Angolan military who were charged with desertion and carrying out armed attacks, as well as a former Voice of America journalist, known for his criticism of the government. The detainees were denied contact with legal professionals or their families for prolonged periods of time. The above are considered to be a violation of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.
March 27, 2009: FLEC-FAC rebels attacked a convoy of three Chinese-owned trucks in the outskirts of Cacongo, killing one Chinese national. At least 8 people were arrested for allegedly perpetrating the attack.
April 1, 2009: An army patrol came under attack by suspected militants in the area of Cacongo.
January 8, 2010: FLEC perpetrated an attack on the Togo national football team, leaving 3 people dead and 9 wounded.
July 9, 2010: Henrique N'zita Tiago stated that FLEC will discontinue its armed struggle and offered to restart peace talks. FLEC Renovada commander Alexandre Builo Tati echoed the statement.
November 8, 2010: FLEC militants ambushed a convoy carrying Chinese workers, and 2 Angolan soldiers were killed in the incident.
March 2–26, 2011: Angolan secret services carried out a number of assassinations targeting FLEC commanders. FLEC-N'Zita head of staff, Gabriel "Firefly" Pea was assassinated in Ponta Negra, Republic of the Congo, on March 2. FLEC-FAC chief of staff Gabriel "Pirilampo" Nhemba was found dead in the village of N'tando, Republic of the Congo, on March 14. FLEC operational commander of Northern Region, Maurice "Sabata" Lubota's body was found in the vicinity of Kimongo, Republic of the Congo, on March 26.
A Bertelsmann Stiftung investigation covering the period between 2011 and 2013: Indicated that systematic human rights violations have taken place, with journalists, civil rights activists, and clergy members receiving harassment after being accused of supporting FLEC. Reports by Freedom House, Bertelsmann Stiftung, and Human Rights Watch also pointed out violations committed by FLEC.
December 20, 2014: Guerrillas ambushed an army vehicle in the outskirts of Vito Novo, Buco-Zau municipality, killing 4 and wounding 7 soldiers.
December 22, 2014: A skirmish took place in Ntataba, Buco-Zau, resulting in 1 death and one injury among the ranks of the government troops.
April 4, 2016 – December 23, 2017: Tensions grew between Frédéric Bintsamou and President Denis Sassou-Nguesso. Resulting in a conflict with the Ninja militia and the central government, known as the Pool War.
May 2016: Rebels boarded an offshore oil rig and threatened the workers there.
July 25–28, 2016: FLEC claimed to have killed nine Angolan soldiers and wounded another 14.
February 2017: BDK upholds a presence in the western part of Congo, and their idea of resisting all Western influence has also resulted in attacks on, for example, Christian churches. New violent clashes between Congolese police and BDK activists were reported in Kimpese, resulting in at least eight members of the group being killed.
May 17, 2017: BDK followers freed their leader, Ne Muanda Nsemi, and 50 other inmates after attacking the Makala jail of Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
March 2020: Police dispersed several BDK members in Kinshasa for defying a ban on gatherings of more than 20 people imposed to halt the spread of the coronavirus pandemic. Between 13 and 24 April 2020, about 20 sect members and police officers were killed in three separate clashes on a key highway in the Kongo Central province, following BDK blockades in the towns of Boma, Kisantu, Sona-Bata, Kisundi, and Songololo. On April 24, Nsemi's house in Kinshasa was raided. According to the interior minister, 8 people were killed; 35 were injured, including Nsemi and 8 police officers; and 168 were arrested, although Human Rights Watch claimed that at least 33 were killed, and put the total death toll of all the raids at 55. Nsemi, then about 70 years old, was taken to the hospital with a head injury before being handed over to prosecutors. The police response was condemned by Human Rights Watch as excessive, noting, for example, that the April 22 raid in Songololo killed at least 15 people and included burning down the targeted house and allegedly putting some of the bodies on public display.
March 30, 2020: Inspired by a call from the Organization of Emerging African States and a similar move by SOCADEF, Cabindan militias declared a unilateral ceasefire to help combat the COVID-19 pandemic.
May 2020: KONGO ULTRA, a Kongo Ultra Nationalist movement with members in Brussels, Paris, London, Brazzaville, Kinshasa, Pointe-Noire, Cabinda, Boma, Matadi, Mbanza-Kongo, and Uige, was founded by traditional leader Jean Kiala-Inkisi.
June 2020: At least 2 FLEC-FAC guerrillas were killed in clashes with the Angolan military.
July 2020: KONGO PARKS was founded by traditional leader Jean Kiala-Inkisi. With the aim of managing all national parks in the Wene wa Kongo and driving out foreign non-profits. The park rangers mainly focus on the American-based Wildlife Conservation Society and the German-based Wild at Life.
Additionally, religious leader and politician Zacharie Badiengila, known as Ne Muanda Nsemi, died on October 18, 2023. He was leader of the political and religious movement Bundu dia Kongo (BDK).